CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter discusses (a) the theoretical framework, (b) previous related study and (c) research setting.
 	
A.	Theoretical Framework 
The theoretical framework that are related to this study including (1) concept of listening, (2) concept of teaching listening, (3) concept of listening grid, (4) concept of teaching listening by using listening grid and (5) advantages of Listening Grid.

1.	Concept of Listening
Being one of the language skills, listening is an important skill since it occurs in all aspect of life, such as having conversation with friends, listening to music, listening to academic lectures and attending seminar or conferences presentation. A study by Wilt (in Malkawi, 2010: 771) found that people listen 45% of the time they spend communicating, 30% was spent speaking, 16% reading and 9% writing.

(a)	Definitions of Listening
Many authors have defined the term of listening. According to Howatt and Dakin (in Saricoban, 1999:1), listening is ability to identify and understand what others are saying, and involved understanding a speaker's accent or pronunciation, his grammar and his vocabulary, and grasping his meaning. Mc Erlain (1999: 78) defines listening as the ability to receive and to decode oral communication by processing a language sample. 
Besides, Morley (2001: 71) defines listening as including not only basic auditory discrimination and aural grammar but also reauditorizing, extracting vital information, remembering it and relating it to everything that involves processing or mediating between sound and construction of meaning.
Listening is also theoretically considered as a process in which individuals concentrate on selected area of aural input, construct meaning from passages, and relate what they hear to existing knowledge (O’Malley, et al, 1989: 418).
However, listening has different meaning from hearing. Listening occurs in a conscious condition, although both hearing and listening involve sound perception. Listening is more than hearing; comprehending spoken language involves process-oriented thinking skills. Because listening involves language and thought, the ability to listen effectively develops as students’ language abilities develop and mature (Gain, 2008: 1).
From the explanation above, listening can be defined as an activity to listen consciously with attention in order to understand what others are saying through the steps of comprehend the word and making prediction of what people said and finally understanding the meaning.
Furthermore, listening comprehension has deeper meaning. Listening comprehension is defined as an inferential process in which the listener construct meaning through the interaction and its interpretation is guided and influenced by the context of situation and the listener purposes for listening (Buck, 1997: 2).
In addition, James (1984: 129) explains listening as:
... it’s not a skill, but a set of skills all marked by the fact that they involved the aural perception of oral signals. Secondly, listening is not “passive”. A person can hear something but not be listening. His or her short-term memory may completely discard certain incoming sounds but concentrate on others. This involves a dynamic interaction between perception of sounds and concentration on content.

James (1984: 129) also states that listening is believed as an active skill even though listening is a receptive skill. In addition, Rost (2000: 9) points out to become better listeners; learners must employ active thinking as they listen. Moreover, listening needs learners’ active participation in creating meaning from input received (Troike, 2006: 160). 
From the explanation above, listening comprehension can be defined as interactive process of listener’s understanding that involves the activity of decoding the language message in order to understand the meaning of language based on the context of situation and listener’s purposes for listening.

(b)	Importance of Listening
Listening has lots of significance in language learning comprehension. It provides the foundation for all aspects of language and cognitive development. Listening also plays a life-long role in processes of learning and communication, and it is essential to produce participation (Hysop & Tone, 1988: 1). Listening is arguably the most important skill required for obtaining comprehensible input in one’s first and any subsequent languages. It is a pervasive communicative event: we listen considerably more than we read, write, or speak (Decker, Hadley, Wilt in Hysop & Tone, 1988: 1). In line with Decker, Brown (2001: 247) states that students in classroom always do more listening than speaking, it means that listening takes more parts in the pedagogical context. Furthermore, Saricoban (1999: 1) points out that listening as the receptive skill is important to be taught to language learners’ because receptive skills can give way to productive skill. Brown (2006: 2) also explains that students can activate their knowledge by comprehend what they hear.
The students may acquire their second language effectively if they have good listening ability. Portovsky (2001: 45) states that large amount of listening practice before speaking and reading may prepare the students to acquire a second foreign language with greater efficiency than if they are taught all the skills simultaneously.
The descriptions above have shown that listening holds an important role for acquiring language learning and the students which have good listening may become active learners in teaching learning process.

(c)	Some Difficulties in Listening
Learning a foreign language is a process requiring a long time. During the process, the learners may run into lots of difficulties or problems, including while learning listening. Ur (2009: 23-24) proposes some possible problems encountered by foreign language learners. The first one is difficulty in hearing the sound. Some learners will find it difficult to catch the words because some of them do not exist in their native language. For instance, the sound /θ/ as in ‘three’ does not exist in Indonesian.
The second problem is feeling uneasy among redundancies. Redundancies like rephrasing, repetitions, elaborations and little incantations of ‘I mean’ and ‘you know’ will be easily found in spoken language. While listening to a native speaker’s talks, the foreign language learners probably find some redundancies from the speaker. The learner with slow grasp of meaning will run into difficulties to do the same as the native speaker.
The third problem is difficulty in predicting the language meaning, when the listener can guess the utterance that is going to be said next, it will likely be easier for them to perceive and comprehend it. However, some learners find it hard to predict the speech. The cause why the foreign learners cannot predict it well is related the lack of familiarizing the words, grammar, stress and intonation.
The last problem is difficulty in understanding colloquial vocabulary. The learners may know vocabulary used in colloquial speech, but this did not mean that they are familiar with the words. The learners listening to the spoken discourse in the foreign language will probably not understand the words they have not learnt yet. Therefore, they need to learn the words or expression.
Listening is not easy to learn and also to teach, because listening is a complex active skill requiring the ability to decode and to construct meaning of what others are saying. In acquiring the skill, the students may have some problems to solve. According to Wills (2011), the difficulties of listening comprehension is the students are unable to understand what  is taught in listening class because they do not understand the verbal content of the lessons and frequently lost the confidence as a second language learner.

(d)	Process of Listening
Listening is not considered as a simple process. The listeners go through some stages before they are able to construct the meaning of the messages received. There are some stages in listening process: perception, decoding, and prediction and selection (McKeating in McErlain, 1999: 79). Perception refers to the process of identifying speech sounds. In this stage, the listeners using linguistics knowledge need to segment flow of speech into meaningful parts. In decoding stage, the listeners make sense of the message by taking in chunks of key words meaning. Then, in prediction and selection stage, the listeners listen without trying to catch every word. The selection refers to the process of refining information and retrieving relevant information in a mass of data.
On the other hand, Kline (1996: 16-27) mentions some phases in the process of listening. There are five phases namely receiving, attending, understanding, responding and remembering. Receiving, attending and understanding are defined as the reception to the sounds, attention to selection and understanding the meaning. The step of responding, then, is a form of feedback that completes the communication transaction. It lets the senders know that the messages were received, attended to and understood. Moreover, remembering refers to remembering the messages whether in short or long term memory. The two last stages, remembering and responding are preferable. Those two steps are indicators of listening accuracy.

(e)	Types of Listening
People listen for some purposes in different situations. People may listen to gain information, to raise relationship, to feel enjoyable, to obtain appreciation and so forth. In short, each purposes of listening differentiate its type.
Kline (1996: 30-43) classifies listening into five types namely informative, relationship, appreciative, critical and discriminative listening. First is informative listening which requires listeners to understand the message. In this type, there are some aspects to be noticed, such as vocabularies, concentration and memory that support to be a better listener and to get the meaning what the speakers expect. Second is relationship listening which emphasizes on understanding another person’s feelings or point of view. The special type of relationship listening is therapeutic listening which facilitates problem-solving. In addition, the purpose of relationship listening is to assist an individual and improve relationship between people. The effective of relationship listening is shown by quality of an individual’s attention, support and empathy to others. Third is appreciative listening. It is a form of listeners’ response to what they listen to, such as listening to music, to speaker whom they admire in television or radio. On the other hand, this type of listening is influenced by speakers’ performance, listeners’ perception and listeners’ previous experiences toward the listening activity in this type. Fourth is critical listening which mainly concerns on the ability to listen critically. It is much needed by politicians, journalists, salesmen, advocates of policies and procedure and spiritual needs. Effective critical listening depends on ethos or source of credibility, logos or logical argument, and pathos or psychological appeals. The last is discriminative listening. This type helps others types of listeners in understanding the messages. The listeners are required to be sensitive to changes in the speaker’s rate, volume, force, pitch and emphasis. Furthermore, the listeners can detect and identify the meaning differences.
In the context of language classroom, Brown (2001: 255) brakes down listening into six basic types: reactive, intensive, responsive, selective, extensive and interactive. Firstly, reactive listening involves little meaning understanding. It relates to drill activity. Secondly, intensive listening concentrates on language components, such as phonemes, words, intonation, discourse markers, etc. Referring to its concentration, it involves bottom-up approach. Thirdly, responsive listening is listening to short stretches of teachers’ talk, such as greeting, asking question, commanding and checking comprehension. The purpose of this type is to obtain immediate response and give appropriate reply from the students. Fourthly, selective listening is listening for particular items in a passage. Students are not allowed to process everything but scan certain information. Its purpose is not to look for general meanings, but rather to get important information in the text. Fifthly, extensive listening requires students to develop top-down skill, general understanding of spoken language, for instance listening for the gist, for the main ideas and making conclusion. Interactive skills, such as note-taking, and discussing, are required for full comprehension. Lastly, interactive listening is integrated with speaking or other language skills. For instance, students actively participate in discussion, debates, conversations, role plays and pair/group work.
The listening types above, are related to the materials given in school and competencies achieved. Regarding the focus of this study, the listening materials given are related to Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP). One of the competencies that must be achieved is the students are able to give the response to the simple appropriate action in school context. 
Based on the listening competencies, the types of listening that are appropriate to achieve listening competencies are informative, selective, intensive and extensive listening. Those listening types are used to comprehend the meaning of simple appropriate action and give the response to the simple appropriate action in school context. 

2.	Concept of Teaching Listening
Since listening is an important skill to be learnt, teaching listening should be an optimal starting point in language instruction. According to Nation and Newton (2009: 15), listening is the natural forerunner to speaking in which early stages of language development in a person’s first language and acquisition of other language are dependent on listening. Therefore, approaches in teaching listening are necessary to be recognizing for successful teaching listening. 

(a)	Approaches in Teaching Listening 
Related to the teaching listening skill, there are two major approaches that dominate language in pedagogy, namely bottom-up processing and top-down processing.
1)	Bottom-up Processing
According to Duzer (1997: 4), listening through bottom-up processing refers to deriving meaning of the message bases on the incoming language data, from sound to words, to grammatically relationships and to meaning. In line with Duzer, Richards (2008: 4) states that bottom-up processing refers to using the incoming input as the basis for understanding the message which begins with analyzed the received data with listener’s comprehension until the meaning is derived. So, the listeners will remember the units of meaning not the form in which they initially heard. Listeners’ knowledge helps them to find the appropriate chunks.
In teaching listening, many activities focus primarily on bottom-up processing with exercise such as dictation, cloze listening, the use of multiple choice question after the text and similar activity that require close and detailed recognition and processing of the input (Richards, 2006: 5)

2)	Top-down processing
Different from bottom-up processing, top-down processing emphasizes on the activation of prior knowledge and experiences in understanding the message (Brown, 2006: 2). Richards (2008: 7) states that top-down processing goes from meaning to language whereas bottom-up processing goes from language to meaning.
According to Nunan (1999: 1), teaching listening through top-down processing enables the students to actively reconstruct the original meaning of speaker using incoming sounds as clues. Moreover, Richards (2008: 9) states that the exercise in top-down processing develop the learners’ ability to infer the setting for a text, infer the role of the participants and their goals, infer causes or effects, infer unstated details of a situation and anticipate questions related to the topic or situation.
Ideally, both processing above are integrated in teaching listening. Brown (2006: 3) reveals that students need both bottom-up and top-down processing skills in listening. Richards (2008: 10) explains that to which one or the other dominates depends on the listener’s familiarity with the topic and content of a text, the density of information in a text, the text type, and the listener’s purpose in listening.

(b)	Concept of Teaching Listening to Young Learners
Scott and Ytreberg (1999: 2) divide young learners into two groups, whose basic age is from five to ten years. The first group is from five to seven, and the second group is from eight to ten or eleven. This categorization is done because there is a big difference in abilities and perception of children aged five and ten. The writer is more interested in the second group, because children at the age of eight start learning English language at the elementary school in Indonesia. 
The teaching and learning of English for young learners provides the students’ English language competencies in the golden age –the age that children can learn anything easily. Children are able to learn anything at any stage as long as the learning material is presented in a comprehensible way. Therefore, the English teacher should follow a spiral curriculum model in developing competency standard and basic competency in their school-based curriculum, i.e., the one whose content is included in any units but in different levels. 
Young learners’ general characteristics listed in Scott and Ytreberg (2006: 4) is closely connected to the difference between adults and young learners. Young learners (age eight to ten/eleven):
1)	understand the world correctly
2)	separate the fact and fiction
3)	choose the best way of learning for themselves
4)	understand “fair” and “unfair” and gauge the teacher’s behavior in the classroom
5)	have likes and dislikes
6)	have ability to cooperate with his classmates and learn from them
7)	need the spoken word and physical world to express and realize the meaning
8)	ask questions all the time”
This list may help teachers to understand the young learners´ world and they might use it fully when planning their lessons and dealing with children. When the teachers realize that the children have different understanding of the world and they need different approaches to use effectively their abilities, they can better help their students. 
The listening skill is indeed the most basic skill in any language learning process, be it language acquisition or foreign languages learning. In fact, listening skill becomes ever more important in the case of teaching foreign languages to young learners. As Phillips (1993: 15) puts it: 
Listening tasks are extremely important in the primary language (foreign language) classroom, providing a rich source of language data from which the children will begin to build up their own idea of how the language works. 

As argued by Linse (2005: 27), a main reason for the teaching of the listening skill is that, listening may be a foundation for other language skills. The following statements help us to understand how other skills are built on the listening ability: “You need to hear a word before you can say it; you need to say a word before you can read it; you need to read a word before you can write it”. Besides as argued by Sharpe (2001: 11), the promotion of children’s speaking and listening skills lie at the heart of effective learning in all subjects of the primary curriculum. Therefore, the development of pupils’ listening skills should be a key aim of primary teaching.
The writer concluded that listening is an active process, as the mind actively engages in making meaning. It is therefore our duty as teachers to ensure that the materials we use are comprehensible to our young learners, as well as within the range of what they are developmentally ready for. Listening is also hard work and can be stressful for young learners. So, in order to maximize the potential for acquisition of language, we need to ensure that our young learners are not stressed about this process.

(c)	Rules of Listening to Young Learners
There are some rules of listening in young learner classes (Cameron, 2002: 2-7; Linse, 2005: 22-29). They are as follow:
1)	the students should not and are not be passive while listening; in other words, they should be engaged and/or work in the listening task actively, although listening is a receptive skill.
2)	the students should be engaged with different listening tasks according to their age, learning style, listening capacity and phonological awareness.
3)	the language teachers should train the students to listen to the English sounds carefully.
4)	the teachers should train the young learners to follow simple instructions to get them ready to develop other language skills.
5)	the students should be given a different task each time they listen to the same text. (examples: First, listen to have a general idea; second listen to complete the blanks; third, listen to check your answers)
6)	the teachers should embed listening into stories, games, routines, rhymes, songs. They may not understand every word, but they can understand the meaning from the context, visuals, and gestures as in real life.
7)	the teacher should be sure  that both bottom-up (requiring linguistic knowledge) and top-down (requiring world knowledge) listening are addressed.

3.	Concept of Listening Grid
In teaching listening to the young learner, sometimes there are some difficulties found by the teacher. Young learners’ students usually prefer to play rather than to study. In order to make them study English, the writer tried to find what young learners are interested. Listening grid is one of suggestion from Cameron (2002: 115) and Bulut (2011: 74) to make the students be more enthusiastic in teaching and learning process especially in listening skill.
The writer defines the definition of listening and the definition of grid. We know that listening is and activity in trying to hear and pay attention to understand spoken English. Whereas, grid is a pattern of straight lines that cross each other to form squares (Oxford, 2005: 189). Furthermore, the definition of grid as cited in Wikipedia (2013: 1) is a pattern of horizontal and vertical lines that provide coordinates for locating points on an image or a map. It can be said that grid is a pattern of horizontal and vertical lines that cross to form square and provide coordinates for locating points on an image or a map. Radian (2001: 1) defines that listening grid is a system of gathering information, categorizing band segmenting it based on your needs, communicating internally about responses and engagement and having up-to-the-minute notification of happenings in social media.
In listening grid, Cameron (2005: 114) states that students listen to a sentence and complete the grid using what they hear. In order to complete the grid, the students need to pay attention to the grammar aspect being taught. In addition, Bulut (2011: 74) says that important point in listening grid is that the missing information should be the grammatical pattern or item that the teacher wants to be noticed by the students. Listening grid is a good example of listen and notice activity.
In this study, the grid is used to help the students in learning listening in fun activity since most the young learners are interested in colorful and big size picture. The grid contains of pictures which must be completed by the students by ticking the column in the grid based on the information they hear from the teacher. It means that listening grid is a pattern of horizontal and vertical lines that cross to form square and provide the pictures related to the listening material.
 
4.	Concept of Teaching Listening by Using Listening Grid
Halliwell (2000: 41) states that listening grid is one of listening activity to strengthen understanding by linking it to active response. Listening grid also make sure that the children have something to do from what they have already heard. 
The procedures in teaching listening by using listening grid given by Halliwel (2000: 44-46) are as follow:
1)	the teacher pre-check the various elements of the grid quickly and build up and example grid on the board. The teacher can do this by saying each phrase two or three times and putting the matching prompt card up as the teacher says it. 
2)	the teacher draws in the lines round the cards until make a board grid.
3)	the teacher makes a statement and mark in the appropriate box.
4)	the teacher does several examples like this yourself then get a students to come to the board to write the numbers in the appropriate squares.
5)	the teacher hands out the class grid.
6)	the teacher rubs out the numbers from the grid on the board and start again. This time, the students fill in their own grids. If some of the classes are looking a little unsure, the teacher can always do the first one or two on the board grid with them so the students can see that they have got the right idea.

5.	Advantages of Listening Grid
Listening grid has some advantages in teaching listening for students, especially young learners (Halliwel, 2000: 47). They are as follows:
1)	Listening grid engaged all the children at the same time.
2)	Listening grid makes the students will enjoy having to search all over the grid for what the teacher has just said.
3)	Listening grid makes students think hard about what they are hearing and is therefore mentally engaging as well as actually occupying.
4)	Listening grid is possible for all children in a mixed ability class to work with the same grid quite happily.
Grids can be used flexibly to cater for mixed ability classes is the advantage of listening grid for the teacher to apply in young learners class.

B.	Previous Related Studies
There are three previous studies related to the use of listening grid in teaching listening. The first study which entitled “Teaching Listening by Using Listening Grid to the Fourth Year Pupils of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Palembang” was conducted by Yuniarti (2010). This study focused on the significant difference in English listening achievement between students who are taught by listening grid and those who are not. The result also showed that listening grid is effective in teaching listening.
The second study was conducted by Agustin (2012). This study is entitled “Teachers’ Teaching and Students’ Perceptions: Using Dictogloss Technique in Teaching Listening”. The study investigated the effect of using dictogloss technique in teaching listening on tenth grade students’ of senior high school listening skill. The result of the study showed that dictogloss technique tend to affect the improvement on students’ listening skill.
The third study was conducted by Kamila (2012). This study is entitled “The Use of Contextual Video to Improve Students’ Listening Ability”. The study investigated the improvement of students’ listening ability by using contextual video on junior high school. The result of the study showed that contextual video was effective to improve students’ listening ability.
There are several similarities and differences between the previous related study and writer’s present study. The first similarity is all studies are experimental study. The second similarity is all studies focus on listening skill. The third similarity is found in the second previous study that has the same population for young learners. The last similarity in the second study is use of teacher as the media in learning process. The teacher will deliver the lesson or the listening task not the cassette or CD.
The differences of these studies are on the variable and the population. The independent variable of first previous study was the use of dictogloss technique and the dependent variable was students’ listening skill; the population was the tenth grade students’ of senior high school. While the independent variable of second previous study was the use of dictogloss technique and the dependent variable was students’ listening skill; the population was the fourth grade students’ of SD Muhammadiyah 6 Palembang. The independent variable of the writer’s study was the use of Listening Grid and the dependent variable was students’ listening comprehension; the population was the fifth grade students’ of SD Negeri 195. The other differences between the second previous study and the writer’s study is the population, because the writer’s use state school while the second previous study use private school as population. The last difference is found in the third previous study that has different activity and media in teaching listening.

C.	Research Setting
The writer conducted her research at SD Negeri 195 Palembang located on Jl. Tanjung Sari I RT.29 Kelurahan Bukit Sangkal Kecamatan Kalidoni Kota Palembang. SD Negeri 195 Palembang was built in 1981. This school has 9 classrooms which are permanent building, one headmaster’s office and one teachers’ room. The school activities are done in the afternoon. SD Negeri 195 Palembang is 486 m² and building is 38 m². 
The buildings of the school are permanent buildings which have permanent floor and brick wall. Each classroom is 6 X 8 m for 30 students. The facilities in this school are complete and also well taken care. There are ceremony field, sport field, health student center and some places to support instructional process well such as library, rest room and canteen.
The present headmaster of SD Negeri 195 Palembang is Hj. Mustika. Z. The total of the teachers and staffs of SD Negeri 195 Palembang 42 person. In addition, SD Negeri 195 Palembang has about 551 students from class I until class VI.